Social Construction of Women Leaders among College Students

Over the years men have been dominant as leaders and consider women less suitable and competent for leadership roles due to various reasons. On the contrary women of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are emerging as successful leaders in various segments of society. But with enormous struggle and they are also few in number compared to men. Gender stereotyping is no more a relevant concept as men and women occupy all positions irrespective of their gender. Leadership has been possible for some women while others don’t get the same opportunity men get in leading organizations. Some women struggle and fight their way into leadership positions while others don’t. Women are ignored or set aside based on several reasons one primary being they need to take care of the home. Though all sort of justification is made for women not being in leadership positions it is important to understand the loss the society faces due to minimum women leaders. Despite all of this, women are said to have equal rights with men in terms of leadership. This study examines the factors that help in the formation of women leaders among the students and the social construction of women leaders among the students. This study uses a qualitative method via a structured interview. The informants of this study are selected based on certain criteria with the belief that the informants will provide accurate information related to women’s leadership among students.


INTRODUCTION
Leaders are the driving force of any system. A leader is one of the most important pillars of management or administration. Leaders lead the system and the followers from the front. A leader can be a man or a woman. Irrespective of gender a leader has got certain inherent qualities. With the help of these qualities the leader leads his or her team for achieving the objective or target. Leadership is related to the activity that conjures up different images in different people. To some, leadership may mean charisma and it may mean power and authority to others. There are different areas in Leadership and each of which is so contributing over the aspect of leadership that each approach in respect of identifying the concept of Leadership, appears to be something new and contributing. However, whatever may be the approach; leadership can be safely stated to be the process of influencing the activities of the group towards the achievement of some objectives and goals (Masri, 2020). However, leadership and management may seem to possess characteristics being -synonymous‖ in nature. In the real-life aspect, these two are not similar. Leadership involves the activities of influencing people towards the achievement of desired goals and objectives of group and management involves the application or involvement of techniques like planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating, etc. which are called management process towards achievement of goals and objectives for which leader also influence the followers.
In today‖s polarized world leaders play an important role in bringing social justice. To make the world a better place for everyone, we need diverse leaders of different genders to lead various sectors like civil society, religion, culture, politics, business, etc. The value different genders bring to leadership is unique. Despite the tremendous progress we have made in science, technology, and finance we have not been able to build an inclusive equal, fair, just, and peaceful world for every citizen. A globe lead by female, male and transgender leaders by equal participation could be the solution for the many social injustices in the world which are manifested in the form of increasing inequality, poverty, conflict, and climate change (Warwick-Booth, 2018).
Leadership and Gender have been constantly explored. It is an interesting and important area under social science research to build a just world order. Several scholars have debated and explored it from diverse views point with divergent results. Bunch (2014) argued that women have been leading families and communities for many years but are not allowed to lead in the public arena where decisions are made that affect their lives. She urges the need to move women leaders into positions of power to impact the world. World Council of Churches central committee member said many women want to save the world and then they burn out when they are twenty-five, whereas the men become leaders when they are forty or fifty on the work women have done. The success and achievement of women throughout human history though evident is recorded remotely or underplayed in historical sources (Cockburn, C., 2007).
In the campus environment, especially the State University of Makassar in Indonesia, many organizations such as the Association of Program of study, the Association of Departments, SMEs, BEM, and student organizations. Most of which lead the organizations are mostly men, and women relegated to the background. Many persons often downplay the candidacy of a woman when it comes to electing a leader of the above-mentioned student organization. Despite the vast number of the female gender than men, however, the male often gets elected as a leader. It is also important to point that in terms of academic achievements, women have always dominated for the last five (5) years; the best graduating students of faculties have always been the female gender. Women also often show more interest in social participation most especially in social organizations. It is ironic that men still dominate in serving as a leader, despite excellent. According to Gefen & Ridings (2005), whether the gender differences exist in the way in which they communicate, influence, or lead, men and women have always been viewed as different and unique sets of people. Whittock et al., (2002) concluded that women on their way up the corporate ladder get caught in two traps. The assumption that women and men have the same leadership qualities and the belief that women must imitate male leadership behavior to succeed. These traps not only prevent women from reaching their full potential but also prevent organizations from maximizing available talent. Schein (1973) compiled a list of 92 characteristics that people commonly believe distinguish between men and women. A similar pattern of results is exhibited in countries with very different national cultures, such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, China, Turkey, and Sweden. Both men and women in those countries believe that men are more similar to successful managers than women are, but men endorse such beliefs to a greater extent than women do. These results suggest that international beliefs about managers may be best expressed as think manager -think male, especially among men. American women have outnumbered men in earning undergraduate business degrees (Carter & Peters 2016). Black Chen (2015) echoed this fact by noting that women‖s representation in colleges and universities throughout the world is increasingly approaching the gender parity of 50 percent. Additionally, the U.S. Census Bureau reported today more women than men are expected to occupy college professor‖s positions, as they represent 58 percent of young adults, age 25 to 29, who holds an advanced degree (Callis & Cavanaugh 2007). Although the male-female wage gap in the United States has definitely decreased in the past generation, women, as of 2010, still earn only 77 percent of what men earn (Glynn & Powers, 2012). This number is up from women earning around a mere 50 percent of what men earn in the 1960s (Glynn & Powers, 2012).
According to (Carli & Eagly 2016) Women held a quarter of executive and senior-level positions in the S&P firms, 36 percent of first and mid-level manager positions, and make up 44 percent of all employees, the study showed. Women hold just 4.2 percent of CEO positions in the S&P 500. A UN Women 2012 review identified that, out of 31 major peace processes conducted since 1992: only 4% of signatories of peace agreements were women; 2.4% of chief mediators were women; 3.7% of witnesses or observers to peace negotiations were women; 9% of negotiation team members were women.
In April 2016, a Price Waterhouse Coopers LLP study of 2,500 global public companies showed that women gained less than 3 percent of new CEO positions. In the U.S. and Canada, 1.1 percent of new CEOs were female. And in January 2016, the Government Accountability Office estimated it would take another 40 years before women reach parity in board seats among the S&P 500, even if they filled seats at twice the current rate. As of March 2015, there were only four African American Chief Executive Officers in Fortune 500 companies according to a report by (Carter & Peters 2016). Although in 2014, women, in general, made up less than 16% of executive leaders in U.S. corporations; only 5.3% of executive leaders in U.S. corporations were African American women. Clearly, for women of color, the gap is wider according to (Walker 2014). Women of color make up 11.9% of managerial and professional positions, but African American women make up a mere 5.3%.
In a 2015 Massachusetts study, only 21 out of 151 nonprofit organizations had boards with at least 50 percent women (Hill et al, 2016). Oakley (2000) shows that women still have to deal with a number of hurdles to reach positions as CEOs and company board members despite their academic achievements and career achievements. While they have advanced in business and management, they continue to be shut out of higher-level economic decision making despite the last decade of activism to smash the ‗glass ceiling'. Glass ceiling-the symbolic wall women hit at mid-management levels-barriers to women‖s advancement can also be thought of as a labyrinth. (Alice Eagly & Linda Carli, 2007) proposed this concept to describe how, all along the way, women confront distinct barriers that stymie or derail their progress. Glass ceiling can be shown by the fact that even though women hold 44 percent of the executive managerial jobs, they only account for 5 percent of the top executive positions (Corporate Leadership Council, 2002). These barriers that make up the glass ceiling that are hindering women from advancing in their careers include lack of mentors and role models for women leaders, exclusion from informal networks of communication, stereotyping and preconceptions of roles and abilities, lack of significant experience, and commitment to family responsibilities.
The first view on gender role stereotype was established by Schein (1975) and Powell and Powell (2002) and is ‗Think manager, think male (or masculine)' which originated in the 1970s. Research on this theory was restricted to male subject‖s biological sex= male = leaders which is a biased view. Research does not substantiate this. Despite the fact, researchers found few differences in the innate abilities of men and women. Stereotypes persist which portrays women as less capable leaders than men. Nye (2018) finds men have an edge when it comes to being willing to take risks and negotiating profitable deals, in the context of business leadership.
The second perspective on gender role stereotypes is ‗Think manager, think female' which was highlighted by research work done by Eagly, Helgesen, and Rosener in the late 1980s and 1990s. Some female advantage authors argue that women are presumed to be advantaged because their leadership style is collaborative and empowering, while men are disadvantaged because their leadership style is more involved with commandand-control and the assertion of power. These claims ignore the overlap of the sexes in terms of their behavioral repertoire and individual adaptability. Interestingly, there are similar other literature reviews (cited in Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen, 2003) reached.
According to Keller & Berry (2003) about four-in-ten Americans point to a double standard for women seeking to climb to the highest levels of either politics or business, where they have to do more than their male counterparts to prove themselves. Similar shares say the electorate and corporate America are just not ready to put more women in top leadership positions. The problem for women leaders arises when gender expectations do not align with expectations for leadership behaviors shared by the general public, causing negative judgments of women as leaders (Ely & Rhode 2010). Women, historically, have faced increasingly more challenges in a workplace setting than men; however, those women who have successfully filled leadership positions offer an interesting insight into the personality of a successful woman leader. For women who have been able to obtain a leadership position, there are still inevitable challenges and sacrifices that they will have to make (Kelly & Slaughter (2012), such as the challenge of combining career with family and dealing with unfair treatment in the workplace.
Women leaders suffer stereotype threats. They try to adopt masculine traits to achieve success in leadership positions. Stereotype threat is most likely to impact those who strongly identify with a particular group for which there is a negative stereotype (Nguyen & Ryan, 2008). When women leaders adopt masculine traits they become less popular as subordinates see them as aggressive and harsh. Research suggests that the presence of this threat may subconsciously lead one to underperform and conform to the very stereotypical behaviors that they were trying to avoid.
Women leaders can benefit the bottom line of business organizations. Lückerath-Rovers (2013) found that companies with at least one woman on their board had a higher return on investment than companies with no women on their board. Hillman et al., (2017) report on S&P 500 companies found a correlation between women‖s representation on boards and a significantly higher return on equity, a higher return on sales, and a higher return on invested capital. Research on private firms found that managerial gender diversity is related to positive performance outcomes (Menguc & Auh, 2006). Furthermore, an analysis of 126 firms in the S&P 500 found that board gender diversity significantly correlated with improved corporate social responsibility (Boulouta, 2013). Another group of researchers found that gender-balanced leadership teams seem less susceptible to problems associated with ‗groupthink' (Opstrup& Villadsen, 2015).
A study of businesses operating during the Great Recession found that female CEOs were less likely than their male peers to lay off staff. The difference was significant; workforce reductions were more than twice as frequent at male-owned firms as at female-owned firms (14 percent vs. 6 percent), and more workers were affected (Matsa & Miller, 2014). Retaining staff can lead to lower short-term profits, but it can also preserve employee morale and reduce future hiring and training costs (Matsa & Miller, 2014). Other research shows that firms with more women in leadership roles may have smaller pay gaps between men and women who have similar work experience and arrive at the firm under similar circumstances (Tate & Yang, 2015). And the more women on the board, the more likely a firm will adopt a full range of LGBTfriendly policies (Cook & Glass, 2016).
According to a new Pew Research Center survey on women and leadership, most Americans find women are stronger than men in terms of being compassionate and organized leaders. When it comes to characteristics that apply specifically to political and business leadership, most Americans don‖t distinguish between men and women. But among those who do draw distinctions, women are perceived to have a clear advantage over men in some key areas. Political compromise has been in short supply in recent years, particularly in Washington, DC. Many adults (34%) think that female politician are better at working out compromises than their male counterparts. Only 9% say men are better. A narrow majority (55%) say there‖s no difference between men and women in this regard. Women are also perceived to have an edge over men when it comes to being honest and ethical (34% say women are better at this; 3% say men are better at it).
There is no difference between men and women and management characteristics' was summarized by Vecchio (2002Vecchio ( , 2007. This perspective states that the leadership characteristics of men and women are indistinguishable. Anderson (2015) said that to the majority of Americans, women are every bit as capable of being good political leaders as men and the same can be said of their ability to dominate the corporate boardroom. And according to a new Pew Research Center survey on women and leadership, most Americans find women indistinguishable from men on key leadership traits such as intelligence and capacity for innovation. Just as in the political realm, the public does not see major differences between men and women on key business leadership qualities.
Due to the above, this research is interested to know more about how the construction of social woke up about the leader of women among students. Whether prefabricated who woke up was the women who lead in an organization is still considered taboo' which means to be considered as a weak creature, or women leaders have been acceptable among students with all the polemic and the assumption and stereotype attached to it.

METHODS
This study used a qualitative method using a structured interview. The findings of the study are described and then interpreted. The research informants selected were based on the students who have been, and have served as board members of a campus organization. Research instruments were validated through the examination (audit) of the data received in the research process and the results of the research. The research instrument was audited by the researchers and oversee by the team supervisor. Data collection was done through interviews and documentation. The source of the data used is the primary data, and secondary data sources were also used to support the primary data obtained. Data analysis techniques used include data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion.

Factors that Plays a Role in the Construction of Women Leaders in College Students
Family is the first and foremost important agent of political socialization. It is the first primary institution, which may significantly influence the process of formation of the political self of the individual during childhood. The importance of the family as the first socializer derives from the fact that the child is born and brought up in the family where it spends the formative years of its life. From birth to adolescence, the child is dependent upon the parent for fulfilling their basic need like a need for food, cloth, shelter, need for safety from bodily harm, and need for love and affection Parents provide him not only these basic needs but also dispense rewards for approved behavior and punishment for disapproved behavior as they tent as ‗Authority Figure'. Therefore, the child views its parents as significant persons or as models and thereby imitates their values and beliefs and also tends to perform gratification eliciting activities.
Thus, the dependence of the child upon the parents, its regular interaction and informal contact with the parents, and their emotional attachment to each other, provide the most suitable environment for the parental transmission of preferred beliefs, values, and attitudes which may be acquired and internalized by the child. Hence, the family, especially the parents, plays a crucial role in the process of formation of attitude, orientation, and disposition of the child. Parents may transmit to the child, deliberately or non-deliberately, explicitly political orientations as well as politically relevant, a non-political orientation which may help to form his personality. The family has an enormous influence in shaping individual character. The first super ordinate theme family influence has five basic themes: (a) family interactions, (b) disciplined lifestyle of the family, (c) family spiritual discipline, (d) sibling interactions and relationship, (e) family status in society (f) socializing experiences at home (Nurjayanti et al., n.d.).
A family is a group of people connected by marriage, adoption, and birth, which aims to create and maintain a common culture, enhance the development of physical, mental, emotional, and social of individuals who are in it visible from the interaction pattern of interdependence to achieve a common goal (Chaer et al., 2019), (Irianti, 2020). In most societies, women often play the role of mothers and mediators. Since, most societies within Indonesia accepts women as equal, therefore women should be able to lead in society. Beyond the family environment, the school is the first public institution to which the child gets exposed and spends some crucial formative years of his life. It is in school the children learn not only curricular instruction but also interacts with the teachers and other schoolmates and participate in extra-curricular activities. Consequently, the child may learn and acquire values, beliefs, and orientations that may be politically relevant subsequently. The school, therefore, can significantly influence the child in the process of his political socialization. The school may undertake both manifest and latent political socialization. It may transmit deliberately as well as non deliberately, both explicitly political orientation and politically relevant non-political orientations and values through its various mechanisms like the curriculum, the teacher, the school-ritual, the school social-milieu, and the school extracurricular activities. These agencies or mechanisms may contribute significantly towards his political learning and formation of political leadership. Due to the importance of school as a political socializer, an effort has been.
The school is also known to be the largest formation of the human character because schools can mold people to become responsible human beings. The school is a unit complex that could provide a huge influence for women for the leadership position. In this era, women can hold a sensitive position with the boys because the education they are very high therefore, women should get an education as well as possible. Many women are now able to lead with the education course, for example, he can be a president, a minister, head of the department, head of school, etc. caused them to have a very high educational and see in the field. Therefore women should aspire to as well because with the ideals and the education of women able to give a great influence in his life. In the era of colonial, a woman should not get a decent education because women are not equal with men but thanks to the struggle of Raden Ajeng Kartini a woman can rise from the ashes very long. Because women can get a decent life.
Currently, the school can make a woman able to survive with his life, therefore, to be a mother they have to go to school because they have to learn how to humanize her child, how to teach a kid to become better in life. For that, a good woman is a female who can give good education to their children.
School is a system of social interaction of an organization's overall consisting of personal interactions associated together in an organic relationship. While based on law no. 2 of 1989 the school is the educational unit that is tiered and continuous to organize teaching and learning activities. Peers in this research is the adult in the form of groups that interact with each other share information with each other. Peers aim to give each other information and comparison about the outside world. Through the peer can receive feedback from their friends on the leader of women. The presence of peers can help to provide encouragement and motivation to be a leader. A group of peers is the real world of young people, who prepared the stage where he can test yourself and other people. Peer influence can be positive and negative. Someone is wrong in promiscuity then it will have a negative impact, on the contrary, if hanging out with a good group of peers then it will have a positive impact (Hirsch et al., 2019).
In this study, the most instrumental in the formation of the construction of the social leader of the women in the community. As the results of the research (Astuti et al., 2019) the women Leaders are not static but dynamic. The environment plays a role closely in the formation of the character of the leader of these women so that the construction is formed and created a female leader is generally held by men. The female was also not inferior and can fill the vacancy.

Construction of Women Leaders in College Students
Social reality is a term used by Berger and Luckman to develop a process of action and interaction which creates a continuous fact that is jointly owned experienced objectively and also subjectively. The example in this study is the students, of course, every individual has own opinion about the figure of the leader of women. Such views can be either a positive outlook or a negative view.
A leader is defined as the means and methods of someone who can influence others in such a way that the person is consciously following and obey all his will. Women are part of the unity of the community that is greater than men. The creation of males and females by Almighty God is the destiny that has a position, degrees, rights, and the same obligations. Men are different from women but only limited to biological differences. Women identical to the figure of a soft tend to budge, weaker, less active, and willing to babysit. On the contrary, men are often shown as someone large, dominant, stronger, more active, autonomous, and aggressive.
Women's leadership is not only limited to domestic life, but also in the community. Leadership is not only limited to influence men to acknowledge their rights are legitimate, but should also include fellow of its kind that can rise work together to grab and maintain the dignity of their, as well as block any effort from anyone, either male or female, a small or large group that aims to steer them in a direction contrary to the dignity and dignity.
The role of domestic women that are natural such as pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding, and others, is not likely to be replaced by men. However, in a public role, women as a member of society have the right to express opinions, politics, and perform their social roles to be more assertive and transparent. In the role of the public in Islam are allowed to perform roles with the consequence that he can be considered to be able and can occupy the role-the role of it. In a public role, women have a variety of activities that are the role of social, cultural, public, economic, and so on, so among households, not only men who choose for the lead but women also bias the lead in the household.
The development of thinking for women from year to year, experiencing significant growth with the times now. It is seen an increasing number of women who participate in political and organizations that can representation for women in various kinds of activities in the community and campus. In this regard, has a lot of women who have successfully achieved the position of the peak position in an organization, institution, and country. Social construction in the mean by Berger has 3 stages: Stage externalizing at this stage is a stage that will be able to open the veil of social construction in students. The process of externalizing in this assessment is the beginning of social construction is understood. Social construction is built based on the discourse and the news circulating in the community and a policy. This process is an outpouring of the self of continuous human into the world, either in physical activity and mental. Niswa (2018) argue after the process of externalizing obtained, the public will tend to interpret the externalizing of existing with a variety of the assessment of each individual. Assessment or interpretation of these is a product of the thoughts expressed by the community.
Externalization of this research is adjustment students about the criteria for the women leaders that are currently developing in students, the number of students who began the process to become a leader by doing the study, discussion, reading, understand the situation, understand how to make decisions that are better educated, high and eliminate the paradigm that exists in the community about a male that a female lead can't. So it is that makes women want to prove to society that is not forever the male lead in an organization or institution but women are also able to lead like men by going through several processes.
This phase of construction usually occurs in the scope of the family while the individual is still at an early age or the children and the interaction as well as began to receive the socialization of the family.
Externalizing is the process of the outpouring of the selfhood of the human continuously into the world, either in physical activity or mental (Sunarto, 2019). Already is a necessity anthropological, humans have always devoted ourselves to the place where he was. No man can be understood as closed off from the world outside.
Stage objectivation is the process of social interaction of individuals in which results have been achieved both mental and physical activities externalizing the human, the result of it in the form of objective reality to be faced by the producer itself. In the process of objectivation, this number of ratings issued by some informants occurs in the life of the community. Objectivation the appears with all the background thinking on the executive board of the student organization can be derived from life, family, community, school or education, the mass media, and figures.
Women lead an association or institution's legitimate only as long as it meets the rules that exist in an organization, to be a good choice as the selection it is necessary to improve the capacity of self-this is due to the well studied. From the informants that I get to take the example of women leaders that exist in the world of college as chairman of the department argues that women wear the flavor and I think the chairman of the department I was able to close emotionally with students.
While this phase of the social construction occurs when an individual has entered a period of thinking that is rational or a period of transition to the adult phase is the stage of objectivation start to occur where the individual can already process the information in the get better comes from the community, family, education, media, peers, and leaders with way more objective or rational.
At a time when women lead an association and institutions have some of the properties at the time lead a more conscientious, more regular, and emotional. But with such properties can make the organization become a better partner at a time when the male leads in an association or institution.
Objectivation is the result that has been achieved, both mental and physical activities externalizing humans (Hidayaturrahman, n.d.). A fact of everyday life that is objective by humans or understood as an objective reality. Objectivation is the achievement of the products of human activity that externalized then obtain the objective properties.
The process of internalization lasts a lifetime for an individual to perform socialization, while he was accounted for on the externalizing. So as for the actor that plays an important role in the formation of the construction of women leaders, namely the family, the community, the media, leaders, and school or education. To find out the truth of a person's thinking, the need for something proof. In social construction, it is called the process of internalization. In the process of the internalization of these differences in opinion regarding women leaders.
Many argue in the community and campus that women are considered to be an innate trait that is emotional that women are not appropriate to be a leader. This resulted in the persistence of discrimination in society against women, although according to law No. 1 of 2017 about gender equality that women have gained equal rights with men in the various fields.
About women's leadership then it is not despite the leadership of men, the difference in the leadership of women and men among others; the leader of the women's always more inclined to behave in a democratic and taking the part where they have more respect and pay attention to workers or subordinates, and a variety of power and the feelings with other people. This leadership style is known as the leadership of the interactive emphasize aspects of the whole and the relationship either through communication and the perception of the same. While women leaders are always more concerned with interpersonal relationships, communication, motivation of workers, task oriented, and being more democratic in comparison to the male leader who is more concerned with the aspect of design strategy and analysis. This phase already entered the age of the adult, already get an education, and can already be in if considered carefully or rational. At this stage, the individual can already decide to pass through the stage of externalizing and objectivation. The formation process of construction at this stage is when the individual try compares the information that has been gained in the previous stage then the individual can make the decision.
Internalization is the process of re-absorption of the objective world into the consciousness in such a way that the subjective individual is influenced by the structure of the social world. Society as a reality of the subjective implies that objective reality is interpreted subjectively by the individual.

CONCLUSION
The actors that play a role in the formation of the construction of the leader of the female students are: followed by the school/education, figures, peers, and community. But most affect the construction process is a society on stage objectivation. The social construction of women leaders who formed among students is women can be leaders like men but should be fully supported by men. This construction is formed through the three stages that take place simultaneously beginning with the externalizing, this stage from outside the individual, the second stage is objectivation dig or manages the information that has been received, and the internalization stage of the formation of the results mean.