Evaluation of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions of Pharmacovigilance (PV) amongst Health Professionals and Students
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47540/ijcs.v2i2.986Keywords:
Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR), Healthcare, Pharmacovigilance (PV)Abstract
Pharmacovigilance (PV) and drug safety remain important areas of study worldwide. Unfortunately, medical professionals and students generally do not understand the reporting of PVs and adverse drug reactions (ADRs). This study compares student knowledge, attitudes, and perspectives with those of healthcare professionals in the pharmacy, medical, dental, and nursing fields. A questionnaire study was conducted to determine the level of understanding and attitudes toward PV and ADR reporting among 82 healthcare professionals (52 pharmacists, 15 physicians, 10 dentists, and 5 nurses) and 100 undergraduate healthcare students (45 pharmacies, 12 physicians, 35 dentists, and 8 nurses). According to the survey, among medical professionals and students, pharmacists are better educated about pharmacovigilance and adverse drug reactions than physicians, dentists, and nurses. The study found that pharmacists had a more favorable attitude toward pharmacovigilance and ADR reporting than other healthcare professionals. Doctors and medical students ranked second in terms of understanding of pharmacovigilance and the ADR reporting system, followed by dentists and dental students, and nurses and nursing students ranked last. In conclusion, pharmacists and pharmacy students exhibited superior knowledge, attitudes, and views of PV and ADR reporting compared to other healthcare professionals and students. The paper underlines the necessity of integrating pharmacovigilance education into the Libyan healthcare system and school curricula to train staff and educate students for real-world practices and workplaces.
References
Aagaard, L., Strandell, J., Melskens, L., Petersen, P. S. G., and Hansen, E. H. (2012). Global patterns of adverse drug reactions over a decade: Analyses of spontaneous reports to vigibaseTM. Drug Safety, 35(12), 1171–1182.
Abu R Vasudevan, Ashok Balasubramanyam Thiazolidinediones: a review of their mechanisms of insulin sensitization, therapeutic potential, clinical efficacy, and tolerability 2004 Dec;6(6), 850-63.
Abubakar, A. R., Simbak, N. Bin, and Haque, M. (2014).A systematic review of knowledge, attitude, and practice on adverse drug reactions and pharmacovigilance among doctors. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 4(10), 117–127
Aburas, O. A., Dhaw, A. M., Boras, E., Eljamay, S. M., & Elhsadi, R. A. A. (2022). How of COVID-19 Epidemic Spread and the effect of Heritance factor. Data Sciences Indonesia (DSI), 2(2), 76-83.
Al-Awkally, N. A. M., Ghriba, I. M., Eljamay, S. M., Alabeedi, R. M., Ali, M. A. D., Al-Awkally, A. M., & Ghareeb, K. S. (2022). The Role of HbA1c as a Screening and Diagnostic Test for Diabetes Mellitus in Benghazi City. African Journal of Advanced Pure and Applied Sciences (AJAPAS), 5-11.
Alexopoulou, A., Dourakis, S. P., Mantzoukis, D., Pitsariotis, T., Kandyli, A., Deutsch, M., and Archimandritis, A. J. (2008). Adverse drug reactions as a cause of hospital admissions: A 6-month experience in a single center in Greece. European Journal of Internal Medicine, 19(7), 505–510.
Alomar, M. J. (2014). Factors affecting the development of adverse drug reactions (Review article). Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 20:210, 1-7.
Amit, D., and Rataboli, P. V. (2008). Adverse drug reaction (ADR) notification drop box: An easy way to report ADRs. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 66(5), 723–724
Angamo, M.T., Chalmers, L., Curtain, C. M., and Bereznicki, L. R. E. (2016). Adverse-Drug- Reaction-Related Hospitalisations in Developed and Developing Countries: A Review of Prevalence and Contributing Factors. Drug Safety.
Annette Stemhagen, DrPH, FISPE, United BioSource Corporation, Blue Bell, PA Juliane K. Mills, United BioSource Corporation, Blue Bell, PA Analytical Methods for Post-Marketing Safety Surveillance PharmaSUG2011 - Paper HS11
Avery, A. J., Anderson, C., Bond, C. M., Fortnum, H., Gifford, A., Hannaford, P. C., Watson, M. C. (2011). Evaluation of patient reporting of adverse drug reactions to the UK ‘Yellow card scheme’: Literature review, descriptive and qualitative analyses, and questionnaire surveys. Health Technology Assessment. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta15200
Baniasadi, S., Fahimi, F., and Shalviri, G. (2008).Developing an adverse drug reaction reporting system at a teaching hospital. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, 102(4), 408–411.
Bassi, P. U., Osakwe, A. I., Isah, A., Suku, C., Kalat, M., Jalo, I., ... Coulter, D. (2013). Safety of artemisinin-based combination therapies in Nigeria: A cohort event monitoring study. Drug Safety, 36(9), 747–756.
Bates, D. W., Cullen, D. J., Laird, N., Petersen, L. A., Small, S. D., Servi, D., Hallisey, R. (1995). Incidence of adverse drug events and potential adverse drug events. Implications for prevention. ADE Prevention Study Group. JAMA, 274(1), 29–34.
Bisht, M., Singh, S., Dhasmana, D. C., Bisht, M., Singh, S., and Dhasmana, D. C. (2014). Effect of educational intervention on adverse drug reporting by physicians: a cross-sectional study. ISRN Pharmacology, 2014, 259476.https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/259476
Bouvy, J. C., De Bruin, M. L., and Koopmanschap, M. A. (2015). Epidemiology of adverse drug reactions in Europe: a review of recent observational studies. Drug Safety, 38(5), 437–453.
Bowman, L., Carlstedt, B. C., Hancock, E. F., and Black, C. D. (1996).Adverse drug reaction (ADR) occurrence and evaluation in elderly inpatients. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety, 5(1), 9–18.
Brvar, M., Fokter, N., Bunc, M., and Mozina, M. (2009). The frequency of adverse drug reaction related admissions according to method of detection, admission urgency and medical department specialty. BMC Clinical Pharmacology, 9(1), 8
C A Luque 1 , J A Rey Sibutramine: a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake-inhibitor for the treatment of obesity 1999 Sep;33(9):968-78.
Carbonin, P., Pahor, M., Bernabei, R., and Sgadari, A. (1991). Is age an independent risk factor of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized medical patients? Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 39(11), 1093–1099.
Carleton, B. C., and Smith, M. A. (2006). Drug safety: Side effects and mistakes or adverse reactions. BC Medical Journal, (September), 329–333.
Carrasco-Garrido, P., de Andrés, L. A., Barrera, V. H., de Miguel, G. A., and Jiménez-García, R. (2010). Trends of adverse drug reactions related-hospitalizations in Spain (2001-2006). BMC Health Services Research, 10, 287.
Classen, D. C., Pestotnik, S. L., Evans, R. S., Burke, J. P., and Battles, J. (2005). Computerized surveillance of adverse drug events in hospital patients. 1991. Quality and Safety in Health Care, 14(3), 221–225; discussion 225-6.
Cohen JS. Adverse drug effects, compliance, and initial doses of antihypertensive drugs recommended by the Joint National Committee vs the Physicians’ Desk Reference. Arch Intern Med [Internet]. 2001 Mar 26 [cited 2020 Jun 25];161(6):8805.
Cullen, D. J., Sweitzer, B. J., Bates, D. W., Burdick, E., Edmondson, A., and Leape, L. L. (1997). Preventable adverse drug events in hospitalized patients: a comparative study of intensive care and general care units. Critical Care Medicine, 25(8), 1289–1297.
Daniel Stolzberg, Richard J. Salvi and Brian L. Allman Salicylate toxicity model of tinnitus Center for Hearing and Deafness, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, US.
De Paepe, P., Petrovic, M., Outtier, L., Van Maele, G., and Buylaert, W. (2013). Drug interactions and adverse drug reactions in the older patients admitted to the emergency department. Acta Clinica Belgica, 68(1), 15- 21.
Dedefo, M. M. G., Mitike, A. A. H., and Angamo, M. T. (2016). Incidence and determinants of medication errors and adverse drug events among hospitalized children in West Ethiopia, 16(1), 81.
Dedefo, M., and Mitike, A. (2016). Incidence and determinants of medication errors and adverse drug events among hospitalized children in West Ethiopia. BMC Pediatrics.
Del Pozzo-Magaña, B. R., Rieder, M. J., and Lazo-Langner, A. (2015). Quality of life in children with adverse drug reactions: a narrative and systematic review. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 80(4), 827–833.
Dodoo, A N O, Fogg, C., Nartey, E. T., Ferreira, G. L. C., Adjei, G. O., Kudzi, W., ... Ofori- Adjei, D. (2014). Profile of Adverse Events in Patients Receiving Treatment for Malaria in Urban Ghana: A Cohort-Event Monitoring Study. Drug Safety, 37(6), 433–448.
Dodoo, A. N.O., and Ampadu, H. H. (2014).Pharmacovigilance in Africa. In Mann’s Pharmacovigilance (pp. 299–301). Oxford, UK: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd
Edwards, I. R., and Aronson, J. K. (2000). Adverse drug reactions: definitions, diagnosis, and management. Lancet, 356(9237), 1255–1259.
Egger, T., Dormann, H., Ahne, G., Runge, U., Neubert, A., Criegee-Rieck, M., ... Brune, (2003). Identification of Adverse Drug Reactions in Geriatric Inpatients Using a Computerised Drug Database. Drugs and Aging, 20(10), 769–776
Eljamay, S. M., Boras, E., Almzaini, M. S., & Jebreil, M. M. (2023). Practices and Behaviors Regarding the Use of Analgesics. Indonesian Journal of Innovation and Applied Sciences (IJIAS), 3(1), 67-73.
Eljamay, S. M., Younis, F. H., Alashger, E. M., & Eltuomi, R. S. (2022). Assessment of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions of Safety and Prevention Procedures among Butchers in Derna and Neighboring Areas/Libya. East Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(7), 1317-1332.
Fattinger, K., Roos, M., Vergères, P., Holenstein, C., Kind, B., Masche, U., ... Meier, P. J. (2000). Epidemiology of drug exposure and adverse drug reactions in two Swiss departments of internal medicine. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 49(2), 158–167
Felce, D. (1997). Defining and applying the concept of quality of life. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 41(2), 126–135.
Ferner, R. E., and Aronson, J. K. (1999). Errors in prescribing, preparing, and giving medicines: definition, classification, and prevention. Side Effects of Drugs Annual, 22, xxiii–xxxvi.
Field, T. S., Gilman, B. H., Subramanian, S., Fuller, J. C., Bates, D. W., and Gurwitz, J. H.(2005). The costs associated with adverse drug events among older adults in the ambulatory setting. Medical Care, 43(12), 1171–1176.
Figueiras, A., Herdeiro, M. T., and Gestal-otero, J. J. (2006).An Educational Intervention to Improve Physician Reporting. A Cluster-randomized Controlled Trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(9).
Forster, A. J., Murff, H. J., Peterson, J. F., Gandhi, T. K., and Bates, D. W. (2003). The incidence and severity of adverse events affecting patients after discharge from the hospital. Annals of Internal Medicine, 138 (3), 161–167.
Gautier, S., Bachelet, H., Bordet, R., and Caron, J. (2003).The cost of adverse drug reactions. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 4(3), 319–326.
Gerritsen, R., Faddegon, H., Dijkers, F., Van Grootheest, K., and Van Puijenbroek, E. (2011). Effectiveness of Pharmacovigilance Training of General Practitioners A Retrospective Cohort Study in the Netherlands Comparing Two Methods. Drug Saf, 34(9), 755–762.
Golder, S. P. (2013). Evaluating and Optimising the Retrieval of Research Evidence for Systematic Reviews of Adverse Drug Effects and Adverse Drug Reactions
Gony, M., Badie, K., Sommet, A., Jacquot, J., Baudrin, D., Gauthier, P., ... Bagheri, H. (2010). Improving adverse drug reaction reporting in hospitals: Results of the French pharmacovigilance in midi-pyrnes region (pharmacomip) network 2-year pilot study. Drug Safety, 33(5), 409–416.
Haagsma, J. a, Graetz, N., Bolliger, I., Naghavi, M., Higashi, H., Mullany, E. C., ... Vos, T. (2015). The global burden of injury: incidence, mortality, disability-adjusted life years and time trends from the Global Burden of Disease study 2013. Injury Prevention, 1–16.
Hailu, B. Y., Berhe, D. F., Gudina, E. K., Gidey, K., and Getachew, M. (2020). Drug related problems in admitted geriatric patients: the impact of clinical pharmacist interventions. BMC Geriatrics, 20(1), 13.
Hailu, W., Srikanth Bhagavathula, A., Admassie, E., Patel, I., and Khan, T. M. (2015). Retraction: Knowledge, attitude and practices towards adverse drug reaction reporting In Gondar, Ethiopia’ [Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research, (2014), doi: 10.1111/jphs.12065]. Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research, p. 123. https://doi.org/10.1111/jphs.12065.
Hakkarainen, K. M., Gyllensten, H., Jönsson, A. K., Andersson Sundell, K., Petzold, M., and Hägg, S. (2014). Prevalence, nature and potential preventability of adverse drug events – A population-based medical record study of 4970 adults. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 78(1), 170–183.
Hall M, Mc Cormack P, Aurthur N, Feely J. The spontaneous reporting of ADRs by nurses. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 1995; (40) 173-175.
Hallas, J., Gram, L., Grodum, E., Damsbo, N., Brosen, K., Haghfelt, T., ... et al. (1992). Drug related admissions to medical wards: a population based survey. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 33(1), 61–68.
Hallas, J., Worm, J., Beck-Nielsen, J., Gram, L. F., Grodum, E., Damsbo, N., and Brøsen, K. (1991). Drug related events and drug utilization in patients admitted to a geriatric hospital department. Danish Medical Bulletin, 38(5), 417.nts in two German university hospitals. Drug Safety, 31(9), 789–798
Hardmeier, B., Braunschweig, S., Cavallaro, M., Roos, M., Pauli-Magnus, C., Giger, M., ... Fattinger, K. (2004). Adverse drug events caused by medication errors in medical inpatients. Swiss Medical Weekly, 134(45–46), 664–670.
Harmark, L., and van Grootheest, A. C. (2008). Pharmacovigilance: methods, recent developments and future perspectives. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 64(8), 743–752.
Hazell, L., and Shakir, S. a W. (2006a). Under-reporting of adverse drug reactions: A systematic review. Drug Safety, 29(5), 385–396.
Hossein A. Ghofrani, Ian H. Osterloh, and Friedrich Grimminger Sildenafil: from angina to erectile dysfunction to pulmonary hypertension and beyond 2006.
Huang, Y.-L.L., Moon, J., and Segal, J. B. (2014).A comparison of active adverse event surveillance systems worldwide. Drug Safety, 37(8), 581–596.
Hughes, M. L., Whittlesea, C. M. C., and Luscombe, D. K. (2002).Review of National Spontaneous Reporting Schemes. Adverse Drug Reactions and Toxicological Reviews, 21(4), 231–241.
Impicciatore, P., Choonara, I., Clarkson, A., Provasi, D., Pandolfini, C., and Bonati, M. (2001).Incidence of adverse drug reactions in paediatric in/out-patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 52(1), 77– 83.
Inman, W. H. (1996). Attitudes to adverse drug reaction reporting. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 41(5), 434–435.
Jacob E. Sunshine, MD, MS, Nicholas Meo, MD, Nicholas J. Kassebaum, MD, Michael L. Collison, BA, Ali H. Mokdad, PhD, and Mohsen Naghavi, MD. (2018). Association of Adverse Effects of Medical Treatment With Mortality in the United StatesA Secondary Analysis of the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study
Jeetu, G., and Anusha, G. (2010). Pharmacovigilance: A Worldwide Master Key for Drug Safety Monitoring. Journal of Young Pharmacists, 2(3), 315–320.
Jemal, A., Ward, E., Hao, Y., Thun, M., KD, K., HJ, K., ... KE, T. (2005). Trends in the leading causes of death in the United States, 1970-2002. Jama, 294(10), 1255–1259.
Jha, N, Bajracharya, O., and Namgyal, T. (2007). Prevalence of adverse drug reactions with commonly prescribed drugs in different hospitals of Kathmandu valley.
Jimmy Jose,1 Mohammed H. Al Rubaie,2 Hussain Al Ramimmy,2 Shirly S. Varughese2 Pharmacovigilance Basic concepts and an overview of the system in Oman Sultan Qaboos University Med J, May 2021, Vol. 21, Iss. 2, pp. e161–163, Epub. 21 Jun 21
Kang, J. S., and Lee, M. H. (2009).Overview of therapeutic drug monitoring. The Korean Journal of Internal Medicine, 24(1), 1–10.
Khalifa, H., Al-Awkally, N. A. M., & Eljamay, S. M. (2022). Oral Delivery of Biologics: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. African Journal of Advanced Pure and Applied Sciences (AJAPAS), 1-6.
Kiguba, R., Karamagi, C., and Bird, S. M. (2017). Incidence, risk factors and risk prediction of hospital-acquired suspected adverse drug reactions: a prospective cohort of Ugandan inpatients. BMJ Open, 7(1), e010568.
Laatikainen, O., Sneck, S., Bloigu, R., Lahtinen, M., Lauri, T., and Turpeinen, M. (2016).Hospitalizations Due to Adverse Drug Events in the Elderly-A Retrospective Register Study. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 7, 358.
Lagnaoui, R., Moore, N., Fach, J., Longy-Boursier, M., and Bégaud, B. (2000). Adverse drug reactions in a department of systemic diseases-oriented internal medicine: prevalence, incidence, direct costs and avoidability. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 56(2), 181–186.
Laurence, D. R. (Desmond R., Carpenter, J., and Laurence, D. R. (Desmond R. (1998).A dictionary of pharmacology and allied topics. Elsevier. Lavan, A. H., and Gallagher, P. (2016).Predicting risk of adverse drug reactions in older adults. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098615615472
Lazarou, J., Pomeranz, B. H., and Corey, P. N. (1998). Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(15), 1200–1205.
Leape, L. L., Brennan, T. A., Laird, N., Lawthers, A. G., Localio, A. R., Barnes, B. A., ... Hiatt, H. (1991). The nature of adverse events in hospitalized patients.Results of the Harvard Medical Practice Study II. The New England Journal of Medicine, 324(6), 377–384.
Leendertse, A. J., Visser, D., Egberts, A. C. G., and van den Bemt, P. M. L. A. (2010). The Relationship Between Study Characteristics and the Prevalence of Medication-Related Hospitalizations. Drug Safety, 33(3), 233–244.
Light, D. W., Lexchin, J., and Darrow, J. J. (2013). Institutional corruption of pharmaceuticals and the myth of safe and effective drugs. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics, 41(3), 590–600.
Lobo, M. G. A. de A., Pinheiro, S. M. B., Castro, J. G. D., Momenté, V. G., and Pranchevicius,M.-C. S. (2013). Adverse drug reaction monitoring: support for pharmacovigilance at a tertiary care hospital in Northern Brazil. BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology, 14, 5.
Lopez-Gonzalez, E., Herdeiro, M. T., and Figueiras, A. (2009). Determinants of under-reporting of adverse drug reactions: A systematic review, Drug Safety, 32(1), 19–31.
Lopez-Gonzalez, E., Herdeiro, M. T., and Figueiras, A. (2009a). Determinants of under-reporting of adverse drug reactions: A systematic review. Drug Safety.
Lopez-Gonzalez, E., Herdeiro, M. T., Piñeiro-Lamas, M., Figueiras, A., and group, O. behalf of the G. (2015). Effect of An Educational Intervention to Improve Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting in Physicians: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial. Drug Safety, 38(2), 189– 196.
Lopez-Gonzalez, E., Herdeiro, M. T., Piñeiro-Lamas, M., Figueiras, A., and group, O. behalf of the G. (2015). Effect of An Educational Intervention to Improve Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting in Physicians: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial. Drug Safety, 38(2), 189– 196.
Luis Carlos López, Marcela Botero, Jaime Pino, Jorge Hernán Ramírez, MD, Mauricio Palacios, MD. (2010). Adverse drug reactions in internal medicine units at a university hospital: A descriptive pilot study Colomb. Med. 41 (1) Cali Jan./Mar.
M D Rawlins Clinical Pharmacology. Adverse reactions to drugs Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1981 Mar 21; 282(6268): 974-6.doi: 10.1136/bmj.282.6268.974.
Martínez-Mir, I., García-López, M., Palop, V., Ferrer, J. M., Rubio, E., and Morales-Olivas, F. J. (1999).A prospective study of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized children. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 47(6), 681–688.
Mazer, J. P., Murphy, R. E., and Simonds, C. J. (2007). I’ll See You On “Facebook”: The Effects of Computer-Mediated Teacher Self-Disclosure on Student Motivation, Affective Learning, and Classroom Climate. Communication Education, 56(1), 1–17.
Mendes-Marques, J. I. O., Polónia, J. M. J., Figueiras, A. G., Costa Santos, C. M. N., and Herdeiro, M. T. F. (2016). Nurses’ attitudes and spontaneous adverse drug reaction reporting: a case-control study in Portugal. Journal of Nursing Management, 24(3), 409– 416.
Molokhia, M., Tanna, S., and Bell, D. (2009).Improving reporting of adverse drug reactions: Systematic review. Clinical Epidemiology, 1, 75–92.
Monira Alwhaibi, Ghaida Alhindi, Majd Alshamrani, Maryam Bin Essa, Noha A. Al Aloola and Tariq M. Alhawassi (2020). Pharmacovigilance in healthcare education: students’ knowledge, attitude and perception: a cross-sectional study in Saudi Arabia. Saudi BMC Medical Education, 22(2), 83–94.
Morimoto, T., Gandhi, T., Seger, A., Hsieh, T., and Bates, D. (2004). Adverse drug events and medication errors: detection and classification methods. Quality and Safety in Health Care, 13(4), 306–314.
Morrison-Griffiths, S., Walley, T. J., Park, B. K., Breckenridge, A. M., and Pirmohamed, M. (2003). Reporting of adverse drug reactions by nurses. Lancet, 361(9366), 1347–1348.
Moura, C. S., Acurcio, F. A., and Belo, N. O. (2009). Drug-drug interactions associated with length of stay and cost of hospitalization. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 12(3), 266–272.
Mouton, J. P., Mehta, U., Parrish, A. G., Wilson, D. P. K., Stewart, A., Njuguna, C. W., ... Cohen, K. (2015). Mortality from adverse drug reactions in adult medical inpatients at four hospitals in South Africa: a cross-sectional survey. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 80(4), 818–826.
Murff, H. J., Patel, V. L., Hripcsak, G., and Bates, D. W. (2003). Detecting adverse events for patient safety research: A review of current methodologies. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 36(1–2), 131–143.
Nair, N. P., Chalmers, L., Connolly, M., Bereznicki, B. J., Peterson, G. M., Curtain, C., ... Bereznicki, L. R. (2016). Prediction of hospitalization due to adverse drug reactions in elderly community-dwelling patients (The PADR-EC score). PLoS ONE, 11(10), e 0165757.
Onakpoya, I. J., Heneghan, C. J., and Aronson, J. K. (2015). Delays in the post-marketing withdrawal of drugs to which deaths have been attributed: a systematic investigation and analysis. BMC Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0262-7
Oshikoya, K. A., Chukwura, H., Njokanma, O. F., Senbanjo, I. O., and Ojo, I. (2011). Incidence and cost estimate of treating pediatric adverse drug reactions in Lagos, Nigeria. São Paulo Medical Journal, 129(3), 153–164.
Pagotto, C., Varallo, F., and Mastroianni, P. (2013).Impact of Educational Interventions on Adverse Drug Events Reporting. International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 29(04), 410–417.
Palappallil, D., Ramnath, S., and Gangadhar, R. (2017). Adverse drug reactions: Two years’ experience from a tertiary teaching hospital in Kerala. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology.//doi/ 10.5455/njppp.2017.7.1131212122016 Researchgate.Net.
Pande, S., Hiller, J. E., Nkansah, N., and Bero, L. (2013).The effect of pharmacist-provided non-dispensing services on patient outcomes, health service utilisation and costs in low- and middle-income countries.In S. Pande (Ed.), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
Patel, H., Bell, D., Molokhia, M., Srishanmuganathan, J., Patel, M., Car, J., and Majeed, A. (2007). Trends in hospital admissions for adverse drug reactions in England: Analysis of national hospital episode statistics 1998-2005. BMC Clinical Pharmacology, 7(1), 9.
Paulozzi, L. J., Kilbourne, E. M., and Desai, H. a. (2011). Prescription drug monitoring programs and death rates from drug overdose. Pain Medicine (Malden, Mass.), 12(5), 747– 754.
Peter, J.V, H. Varghese, G., Alexander, H., R. Tom, N., Swethalekshmi, V., Truman, C., ... Sivakumar, T. (2016). Pattern of Adverse Drug Reaction in the medical wards of a teaching hospital: a prospective observational cohort study. Current Drug Safety, 11(2), 164–171.
Pirmohamed, M., James, S., Meakin, S., Green, C., Scott, A. K., Walley, T. J., ... Breckenridge, A. M. (2004). Adverse drug reactions as cause of admission to hospital: prospective analysis of 18 820 patients. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 329(7456), 15–19.
Rabee, A. A. A., Mansour, Y. S. E., Mariz, H. A., & Eljamay, S. M. (2021). Effect of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade on intestinal injury induced by indomethacin in rats. Libyan Journal of Medical Sciences, 5(1), 6.
Rajiah K, Maharajan MK, Nair S. (2016). Pharmacy students ’ knowledge and perceptions about adverse drug reactions reporting and pharmacovigilance. Saudi Pharm J. 24(5), 600 –4.
Rashed, A. N., Wong, I. C. K., Cranswick, N., Hefele, B., Tomlin, S., Jackman, J., ... Neubert, A. (2012). Adverse Drug Reactions in Children – International Surveillance and Evaluation (ADVISE). Drug Safety, 35(6), 481–494.
Rawlins, M. D. (1981). Clinical pharmacology. Adverse reactions to drugs. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.), 282(6268), 974–976.
Rehan, H. S., Sah, R. K., and Chopra, D. (2012).Comparison of knowledge, attitude and practices of resident doctors and nurses on adverse drug reaction monitoring and reporting in a tertiary care hospital. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 44(6), 699–703.
Ribeiro-Vaz, I., Santos, C. C., and Cruz-Correia, R. (2016).Promoting adverse drug reaction reporting: comparison of different approaches. Revista de Saúde Pública, 50, 1–9.
Ribeiro-Vaz, I., Silva, A.-M., Costa Santos, C., Cruz-Correia, R., Lazarou, J., Pomeranz, B., ...Marques, M. M. (2016). How to promote adverse drug reaction reports using information systems - a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 16(1), 27.
Rolfes, L., Wilkes, S., van Hunsel, F., van Puijenbroek, E., and van Grootheest, K. (2014). Important information regarding reporting of adverse drug reactions: a qualitative study. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 22(3), 231–233.
Rossi, Alfredo; Cantisani, Carmen; Melis, Luca; Iorio, Alessandra; Scali, Elisabetta; Calvieri, Stefano Minoxidil. (2012). Use in Dermatology, Side Effects and Recent Patents Source: Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery, 6(2), 130-136(7)
Rottenkolber, D., Schmiedl, S., Rottenkolber, M., Farker, K., Saljé, K., Mueller, S., ... Hasford, J. (2011). Adverse drug reactions in Germany: Direct costs of internal medicine hospitalizations. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety, 20(6), 626–634.
Routledge, P. A., O’Mahony, M. S., and Woodhouse, K. W. (2003).Adverse drug reactions in elderly patients. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 57(2), 121–126.
Sabrina Nour, Gilles Plourde Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance Synergistic Tools to Better Investigate Drug Safety 2018.
Sanjib Bhattacharya*1 1. Bengal School of Technology Sugandha, Hooghly, West Bengal(India) The Facts About Penicillin Allergy: A Review 03rd March 2010
Tandon, V. R., Mahajan, V., Khajuria, V., and Gillani, Z. (2015). Under-reporting of adverse drug reactions: a challenge for pharmacovigilance in India. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 47(1), 65–71.
Umair Khan M, Ahmad A, Ejaz A, Ata Rizvi S, Sardar A, Hussain K, et al. Comparison of the knowledge, attitudes, and perception of barriers regarding adverse drug reaction reporting between pharmacy and medical students in Pakistan. J Educ Eval Health Prof. 2015;12:28.
Vilhelmsson, A. (2015). Consumer Narratives in ADR Reporting: An Important Aspect of Public Health? Experiences from Reports to a Swedish Consumer Organization.Frontiers in Public Health, 3, 211.
Viraj Suvarna Phase IV of Drug Development 2010 Apr-Jun; 1(2): 57–60.
Vlahovic-Palcevski, Metzer. Postmarketing Surveillance. Handbook of Experimenta lPharmacology 2011;205:339-51. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21882120 on April 7, 2018
